HUMAN+LEARNING+Ormrod

=__Ch.1 Intro to Human Learning (4/7) Gil __= __What is learning? long-term change in mental representations or associations as a result of experience__

=__**Ch.2 Learning and the Brain (3/10) Gil **__=

=__Ch.3 Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning (3/31) Claire __=

Ormrod Chapter 3: Behaviorist Views of Learning Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning is an example of Behaviorism-one way to explain how people develop involuntary responses to particular stimuli I. Basic Assumption of Behaviorism: Prior to 20th century there were 2 dominant perspectives in psychology: Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt)-primary means of investigating learning is Introspection-look inside your mind and describe your thoughts (too subjective and no scientific rigor) Functionalism (John Dewey) Thorndike and Pavlov began to study observable phenomena-looked primarily at behavior Principles of learning should apply equally to different behaviors and to different species of animals Eqipotentiality- humans and other animal learn in similar ways Learning processes can be studied when the focus of study is on stimuli and responses. Objectivity remains when focus is on stimuli in the environment and responses that organisms make to those stimuli (S-R psychology) Internal processes are largely excluded from scientific study. Behaviorists believe that because we cannot directly observe and measure internal processes they should not be included in research. Neobehaviorists believe that human and animal behavior is better understood when both cognitive processes and environmental events are considered. Learning involves behavior change. As awareness of cognitive factors of learning are studied psychologists suggest that behaviorist law are better applied to understanding what influences performance of learned behaviors rather than what influences learning itself. Organisms are born as blank slates. Human beings and animals (unless there are species-specific instincts or biologically based disabilities) are not born predisposed to behave in a certain way. Every organism has its own unique environmental experience which influences its unique behaviors. Learning is largely the result of environmental events. Conditioning-events occurring in an environment gradually control or influence the way organisms think or behave Determinists (B. F. Skinner)-proposed that if we had complete knowledge of an organisms past influences, present environment and genetic predispositions we could then accurately predict the organisms’ next response Contemporary behaviorists disagree with determinist theory-looking at response to stimuli can help us understand behavior, but not predict actions with total accuracy. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious-the explanation of all learned behaviors should be as concise as possible. II. Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov’s experiment with the bell and the salivating dog is discussed here. 3 Steps of Pavlov’s experiment: 1. Neutral Stimulus (NS)-identification of a stimulus to no noticeable response occurs (ringing bell) 2. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - neutral stimulus (bell) presented followed by a stimulus (meat) that leads to a response. This Unconditioned Response (UCR) is unlearned and occurs automatically (salivation). 3. The formerly NS becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) after being paired with a UCS because it now elicits a response (salivation). This response is now a conditioned response.

III. Classical Conditioning Model Classical Conditioning: Typically occurs when 2 stimuli are presented contiguously Most likely to occur when a conditioned stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus Also know as signal learning (the 1st stimulus signals that the unconditioned stimulus is next) Usually involves learning of involuntary response (uncontrolled response) IV. Classical Conditioning in Human Learning This section deals with attitudes and phobias associated with conditioning: Food aversions related to a bad experience while eating them Fears and phobias related to a unpleasant experience Fear of failure related to punishment or ridicule V. Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning Associative Bias-associations between certain stimuli are more likely to occur than between others (food and nausea rather than a flash of light and nausea) Importance of Contingency- the essential condition; the conditioned stimulus must occur when the unconditioned stimulus will likely follow Extinction-the disappearance of a conditioned response (salivation) can occur when a conditioned stimulus (bell) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (meat) Spontaneous Recovery-the recurrence of a conditioned response after a period of rest, however, it is generally a weaker response Generalization-learners respond to other similar stimuli the same way they responded to the initial stimulus Stimulus Discrimination-occurs when one stimulus is presented along with an unconditioned stimulus and a second stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus. There is a conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus, but it is not generalized (ex. Child abused by father while also having positive interactions with other adult males will probably not generalize her fear of her father to the other men). Higher-Order Conditioning (second order conditioning)-see example page 42 Sensory Preconditioning-two neutral stimuli are presented at the same time; one neutral stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus and becomes a conditioned stimulus eliciting a conditioned response. The second neutral stimulus also elicits the contained response because of its prior link to the conditioned stimulus. (Ex. 1.School/test (no response), 2. School/traumatic event (anxiety), 3. School (anxiety); 4. tests (anxiety) VI. Changing Undesirable Conditioned Responses Conditioned responses are hard to eliminate because they are involuntary. Two ways to get rid of undesirable conditioned responses are Extinction and Counter conditioning. Extinction: presenting a conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus will eliminate the CS; undependable method because extinction speed is unpredictable, there is a tendency to avoid what we fear, extinguished response may reoccur through spontaneous recovery. Counter conditioning More Desirable responses: one conditioned response is replaced with a new, more productive one. More effective than extinction. Systematic Desensitization-means for decreasing or elimination many conditioned anxiety responses. VII. Educational Implications of Behaviorist Assumptions and Classical Conditioning Practice is important-people are more likely to learn when they have a chance to practice Learning should take place in a positive environment associated with a positive emotions To break a bad habit the stimulus-response connection must be replaced Exhaustion Method: performing the bad habit until too tired to continue Threshold Method: present stimulus faintly so it is not responded to and then gradually increase the intensity of the stimulus, but so gradually that it is still not responded to Incompatibility Method: presentation of stimulus when the habitual response cannot occur, but an opposite response will occur Assessing learning involves looking for behavior changes: never assume that learning is occurring unless there is a change in student behavior observed in relation to instruction

=__Ch.4 Instructional Conditioning (3/31) Claire __= Ormrod Chapter 4: Instrumental Conditioning (behaving in ways that bring desired consequences or avoid negative consequences) I. Thorndike’s Early Research Connectionism-experience can strengthen or weaken stimulus-response connections Law of Effect-responses followed by positivity are strengthened; those followed by negativity are weakened II. Rewards and Reinforcement Skinner’s Operant Conditioning-a reinforced response is strengthened and more likely to reoccur A reinforcer is a stimulus or event that increases the frequency of a response it follows. Reinforcement is the act of following a response with a reinforcer. A transitional generality-the use of reinforcement to increase many different behaviors in many different situations A. Important Conditions for Operant Conditioning Reinforcement must follow response Reinforcement must be immediate Reinforcement must be dependent upon response B. Contrasting Operant Conditioning with Classical Conditioning-operant conditioning is learning through positive or negative reinforcement of a behavior; classical conditioning creates a response to a stimulus pairing it repeatedly with a stimulus The Various Forms That Reinforcement Can Take A. Primary versus Secondary Reinforcers Primary reinforce-one that occurs naturally; does not have to be learned to be reinforcing (food, water, oxygen, warmth, etc.) Secondary Reinforcer-conditioned reinforcer B. Positive Reinforcement-involves presenting of stimulus after response; extrinsic reinforcers come from without rather than within Material reinforces-tangible; an actual object Social reinforcer-a gesture or sign Activity reinforcer-engagement in a preferred activity (Premack principle-people will often perform one task if it allows them to engage in a preferred activity) Positive feedback- Intrinsic reinforcers-engagement in a behavior because it makes one feel good inside C. Negative Reinforcement-increases a response through the removal of a stimulus (taking the keys out of the ignition to keep the car from making a beeping sound) III. Punishment -decreases frequency of an unwanted response by presentation of an aversive stimulus (bad grade) or removal of a stimulus (loss of privilege) Effective Forms of Punishment Verbal reprimand Restitution and Overcorrection Restitution overcorrection-person punished must make things better Positive practice overcorrection-person repeats action correctly and maybe in an over exaggerated way Time-out In-house suspension Response Cost Ineffective Forms of Punishment Physical Punishment-illegal in most places Psychological Punishment-threatens self-esteem Extra Classwork Out-of-School suspension Missing recess IV. Common Phenomena in Instrumental Conditioning Superstitious Behavior-occurs when reinforcement is random Shaping-“a process of reinforcing successively closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior until that behavior is exhibited” Chaining-teaching a sequence of responses by reinforcing the first response, then two responses, then three and so on Extinction-decreasing the frequency of a response by no longer reinforcing it Effects of Reinforcement Schedules (continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement) Ratio Schedules (reinforcement occurs after a desired number of responses are given) Fixed Ratio-reinforcement occurs after a constant number of responses have been given Variable Ratio-the reinforcement occurs after a particular, yet changing number of responses are given 2. Interval Schedules-reinforcement depends on the first response given after a certain amount of time has passed Fixed Interval-reinforcement depends on first response after a constant amount of time has passed Variable Interval-the length of response interval changes after each response and reinforcement 3. Differential Schedules: Reinforcing Rates of Responding Differential rate of high responding (DRH) -provides reinforcement after a specific number of large responses occur within a certain amount of time Differential rate of low responding (DRL)-reinforcement of first response after an amount of time has passed where there has been no response (flooded car-must wait to try again) Avoidance Learning-learning to stay away from a stimulus that causes pain, anxiety, or frustration Pre-aversive stimulus-cues the unpleasant event Active Avoidance learning-making a particular response to avoid an aversive event Passive Avoidance Learning-not making a particular response allows avoidance of an aversive event V. Effects of Antecedent Stimuli and Responses in Instrumental Conditioning (antecedent stimuli and antecedent responses set stage for behaviors that may or may not follow) Cueing-nonverbal signals that remind students of desired response (prompting) Discriminative stimulus Stimulus Control Setting Events-environmental conditions under which some behaviors are likely to happen Generalization-carry over of a learned behavior into a similar situation Stimulus Discrimination-learning that a conditioned response made after one stimulus should not be made in another situation Behavioral Momentum- VI. Cognition and Motivation in Instrumental Conditioning Contrast effects Elation effect-increase in amount of reinforcement increases rate of response Depression effect-response rate is slower when amount of reinforcement is decreased

=__Ch.5 Applications of Instrumental Conditioning (3/31 Trina) (3/31 Bryan __=

Theory is about how western educators are primarily responsible for teaching subjects that are for future use and do not apply o the students’ present life—reinforcers are superficial and not “natural” and often not offered until much too late. Punishment for misbehavior takes the place of reinforcers and then actually becomes reinforcing because it allows escape or avoid classroom tasks.
 * Applying behaviorist principles to the classroom **

1. Concerns about using reinforcement and punishment in the classroom. These concerns or “complaints” stem from misunderstanding or misapplying techniques properly Concerns or “**//Bogus Complaints”//** are as follows: a. a criticism of behaviorist approaches is that reinforcers are bribes b. reinforcement leads to dependence on external rewards for positive behaviors. c. reinforcing on student will encourage others to be “bad” d. punishment reduces self-esteem e. Eliminating a problem behavior does not eliminate underlying cause of the behavior 2. Using reinforcement to increase desirable behaviors— 3. Strategies for decreasing undesirable behaviors
 * MANAGEMENT**
 * There are some genuine concerns, however, if this approach does not work, there may be underlying cognitive deficits that need to be addressed. Punished behavior may be merely suppressed and return over time. Rewards given for behavior that is already intrinsically motivating may increase the learner’s enjoyment after the reward is removed.
 * Specify desired behaviors upfront—explain the end result (terminal behavior) or behavior to the class and the benefits.
 * Use extrinsic reinforcers only when desired behaviors are not already occurring on their own, it is not necessary to reward every positive action and extrinsic reinforcers may lose effectiveness if used too much
 * Identify consequences that are truly reinforcing for each student—what works for one or even many, does not work for all
 * Make sure that students will gain more than they lose from changing their behavior. Consciously or unconsciously learners may weigh out the costs of choosing a consequence i.e. the consequence of earning an ‘A’ and the cost (lots of study) may not be enough to get the student to buy in.
 * Make response-consequence contingencies explicit. Let students know what they’re working toward. “if_, then will occur.
 * Consistent reinforcement
 * Gradually shape complex behaviors—break down expectations into manageable parts.
 * If you give reinforcement publicly make sure all students have opportunity to earn it.
 * Use objective criteria to monitor progress—essential to establish frequency of behavior in order to determine the success of reinforcement
 * Foster the ability to delay gratification
 * Once desired behavior is achieved, wean learners from reinforcers
 * Extinguish responses—extinction-making sure that an undesirable behavior is not inadvertently reinforced. Extinction is not always a dependable way of eliminating unwanted behavior. Some behavior may be dangerous and can’t be ignored, sometimes the behavior may even become worse, before it improves, and sometimes it is hard to identify the reinforcer for the behavior.
 * Presenting noncontingent reinforcement may increase undesired behavior i.e. breaks from difficult tasks.
 * Reinforcing other behaviors—if you identify one behavior that you choose not to reinforce, you may inadvertently reinforce other negative behavior
 * Using punishment—punishment is often used as a means of behavior control because it can eliminate undesirable behavior quickly at least temporarily
 * Choosing a punishment-should be punishing without being overly severe. What works for one does not necessarily work for another. Being sent to one’s room may work for some and be reinforcing to another.
 * Inform learners ahead of time about what behaviors will be punished
 * Describe unacceptable behaviors in clear concrete ways
 * When possible, punish immediately after the behavior
 * Administer punishment with the context of a generally warm supportive climate
 * Explain why the behavior is unacceptable
 * Be consistent in use of punishment
 * Modify environment so that misbehavior is less likely to occur
 * Teach and reinforce more appropriate behaviors

Applied Behavior Analysis 1. Components of applied behavior analysis 2. Using applied behavior analysis with large groups 3. Adding a cognitive component to ABA (applied behavioral analysis) 4. Effectiveness of ABA
 * Behaviors that are the focus of intervention are identified in observable measurable terms.
 * Behavior is measured both before and during the intervention
 * Environmental conditions that may be encourage problems behaviors are identified i.e. ABC=antecedent à behavior à Consequence
 * Specific intervention or treatment plan is developed and implemented
 * Treatment is monitored for effectiveness; modified if necessary
 * Measures taken to promote generalization of newly acquired behaviors
 * Treatment is phased out after the desired behavior is acquired
 * Group contingency—entire group must perform a desired behavior in order for the reinforcement to occur
 * Token economy—immediate reinforces given to individual when they complete desired behavior, token is then later traded for a backup reinforcer i.e. an object or activity of individual’s choice
 * Teacher or therapist may model the desired behavior
 * Coaching—verbal instructions towards the goal
 * We know it works, just don’t always know why
 * Works with students that need continual motivation

Instructional Objectives 1. Behavioral objectives 2. Current perspectives on instructional objectives 3. Usefulness and effectiveness of objectives 4. Formulating different levels of objectives -Emphasis on individual study -Unit exams -Supplementary instructional techniques -Use of proctors
 * Speaks to desired academic behaviors
 * Behaviors are observable and measurable
 * Behaviors are conditional i.e. given a certain circumstance, environment etc.
 * Criterion for measurement
 * Focus on lower level skills
 * Teachers have drifted away from identifying specific behavioral objectives instead using more general instructional objectives perhaps labeled as goals, outcomes, standards etc.
 * Use a variety of different established taxonomies i.e. Blooms Taxonomy to measure different levels of educational objectives
 * Programmed instruction (PI) and computer assisted instruction (CAI)
 * PI is programmed instruction and was developed by B.F. Skinner in 1954—involved a “teaching machine”. It consisted of a box that enclosed a long roll of printed material. Students could advance role past a window display that had incremental bits of information aligned systematically, later it took the form of programmed textbooks and later software. Learner would respond to information, after correct response would be reinforced and directed to next bit of information to be learned and so forth.
 * CAI is computer-assisted instruction. Branched not linear so can respond to any type of student response and not limited to words because of graphic capabilities.
 * Effective of PI and CAI—Studies on PI indicate little if any advantage over traditional instructional methods. CAI can lead to greater academic achievement and improved attitudes toward schoolwork when compared to traditional instructional methods. But improvement all round was not great. Of either is used, should be used with effective behaviorist principles
 * Mastery Learning
 * Based in part on concept of shaping. Student masters one-step and then moves to the next small, but more advanced step.
 * Keller’s personalized system of instruction (PSI) –for college instruction. In addition to the discrete unite, logical sequence, self-pacing and frequent measure of mastery PSI includes:
 * Effectiveness of mastery learning and PSI – techniques not without problems. Good points are that motivated students will learn at their own pace, not procrastinate as much, studies indicate that students retain information better. In classes where you have to keep the kids together (for logistical reasons) the faster learning students are not able to move on as quickly and may learn less than their ability. A lot of management issues with larger classes.
 * When behaviorist techniques are most appropriate
 * Behaviorist approaches are most likely more appropriate for some groups than others. Students who have had very little academic success may benefit from behaviorist techniques. Additionally, students who have been identified as having “developmental delays” or “learning disabilities” may also fall into this category. A regular pattern of successes may be what the students need to bolster low self-confidence etc.
 * Students with low motivation may also benefit from these techniques.
 * Students with chronically high levels of anxiety
 * These techniques are often the only ones that will work with some very difficult students.
 * Summary
 * Well-planned, systematic use of reinforcement can be highly effective in improving classroom behavior.
 * Inappropriate behavior can often be reduced through extinction, noncontingent reinforcement, reinforcement of other behaviors or punishment.
 * ABA involves the application of behaviorist principles to address chronic, serious behavior problems.
 * Instructional objectives are a direct outgrowth of the behaviorist concept of terminal behavior
 * Programmed instruction, computer assisted instruction and mastery learning incorporate behaviorist principles like responding, shaping and immediate reinforcement.

=__**Ch.6 Social Cognitive Theory (3/17) Brett **__=

__//Social Cognitive Theory//- blending of behaviorist theory (reinforcement and punishment) and cognitive theory (awareness and expectations) Modeling - behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes acquired through modeling - 4 thing necessary for modeling - attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation Those with high //self - efficacy// (those with beliefs that they can perform successfully) more likely to choose challenging activities self - efficacy can be enhanced from encouraging messages, peer success, and one's own successes Social Cognitive theorists = although environment influences behavior, over time individuals regulate their own behavior

Effective Modeling - 4 conditions must be met 1) attention - needs to be on the model //and// the //significant// parts of the modeled behavior 2) retention - remembering the behavior that was observed, rehearsal can be effective for retention (repeating over and over) 3) motor reproduction - replication of the behavior that a model demonstrated, more effective if opportunity to reproduce is during observation 4) motivation - learner must //want// to demonstrate what they have learned

Factors in development of Self-Efficacy 1) previous successes 2) messages from others 3) successes and failures of others 4) successes and failures of the group as a whole

Elements of Self-Regulation 1) setting standards and goals 2) self-observation 3) self-evaluation 4) self-reaction__

=__Ch.7 Intro to Cognition and Memory (3/24) Brett __= __- Educational Implications of Cognitive Theories -- People control their own learning. (Skinner, and subsequent cognitivists argued that student must be active learners) -- Memory is selective. (students are bombarded with more information than can be processed, so must select info and exclude other info, but are not always good judges of which is more important) -- Attention is essential for learning. //-strategies for holding students' attention:// 1. include variety in topics and presentation styles 2. provide frequent breaks, especially with younger children 3. ask questions 4. minimize distractions when independent work is assigned 5. seat students near the teacher if they have difficulty staying on task

-- people can process only a limited amount of information at a time__

= =

= =

=__Ch.8 Long Term Memory I: Storage (3/24) Brett __=

__Processes involved in long term storage - selection - determining what information we should process further, and what is irrelevant to our needs - rehearsal - repeating something over and over in a rote fashion, effectiveness is questionable - meaningful learning - connecting new material with similar ideas already stored in memory; making sense of material - internal organization - integration of pieces of new information into a cohesive, interrelated whole - elaboration - imposing one's previous knowledge and beliefs on new information - visual imagery - encoding information in a mental picture that captures its physical appearance to some extent

long-term memory storage is idiosyncratic; different people store information from the same situation in different ways and store different information, based on the individuals' backgrounds and ways they take in and store information

storage of new information sometimes affects previously learned information as well; learners sometimes distort new information based on existing beliefs, and sometimes the new information helps learners recognize that their earlier information is inaccurate

the way in which people store new information affects both the nature of the knowledge they process, and the ease with which they can retrieve it__

= =

= =

=__Ch.9 Long Term Memory II: Nature of Knowledge (3/24) Brett __=

__//Declarative Knowledge// - knowledge about "how things are or were" //Procedural Knowledge// - knowledge about "how to do things", awareness of the conditions under which various actions are called for

//Conceptual Knowledge// - when learners integrate declarative with procedural knowledge to address //why// questions, when learners understand why it makes sense to engage in certain procedures on certain occasions

some knowledge is explicit (conscious awareness of it), and other is implicit (hidden from conscious view)

//Concepts// - classes of objects or events that share one or more common properties

//Schema// - is a closely connected set of ideas related to a specific object or event; they often influence how we process, store, and remember new situations; they allow us to fill in missing information using our knowledge about how the world typically operates

//Personal Theories// - coherent belief systems that encompass cause-effect relationships about physical, biological, social, political, or mental phenomena personal theories are not always accurate reflections of the world, they may include incomplete or inaccurate understandings

//Worldviews// - encompass people's general beliefs and assumptions about reality, about "how things are and should be", and influence understandings of a wide variety of phenomena; more likely to reflect implicit rather than explicit knowledge; can still impact how people interpret everyday events and classroom subject matter

If students are starting from scratch about a new topic, helping them develop an accurate understanding about topic is relatively easy. If students need to replace misconceptions with more accurate explanations, they must undergo //conceptual change//, the teacher's task is more challenging.

//Expertise// - of a particular subject area involves acquiring an increasing amount of knowledge, making numerous interconnections within that knowledge base, and eventually integrating what has been learned into a cohesive whole.__

= =

= =

=__Ch.10 Long Term Memory III: Retrieval and Forgetting (3/24) Brett __=

__Retrieval is easier when 1.) it has been stored in connection with many other ideas in memory 2.) is has previously been learned to automaticity 3.) relevant retrieval cues are present interconnections between 1,2,3 will increase the probability that information will be activated when sought

Retrieval is often a constructive process - some information is directly retrieved, while other details are filled in to create a logical cohesive recollection - recall of information can be affected by information or misinformation presented at a later time - people can "remember" things that never happened due to drawing inferences from what they have learned, or related ideas in long-term memory were activated during an experience

Variety of explanations as to why people "forget" things 1.) decay 2.) interference 3.) failure to retrieve 4.) repression 5.) construction error 6.) failure to completely store or consolidate information

Infantile Amnesia - remembering little to nothing about what happens during first few years of life

Forgetting is not a bad thing - we have little need to remember everything about every day of our lives, and we rarely need to remember important information word for word__

= =

= =

=__**Ch.11 Developmental Perspectives on Cognition (3/17) Brett **__=

__Constructivism = Piaget - 4 stages of development 1) Sensorimotor Stage (birth to ~2yrs) - schemes (groups of things that children can do) entail perceptions and behaviors, understanding of world based on physical interactions with it 2) Preoperational Stage (2yrs - 6 or 7 yrs) schemes contain symbolic quality (thinking about things beyond immediate experience), reasoning about events 3) Concrete Operations Stage (6 or 7 - 11 or 12yrs) ability to reason in logical ways about concrete, real situations; realization that their own perspectives not necessarily shared by others 4) Formal Operations Stage (11 or 12 - adulthood) thinking about abstract situations and hypothetical ones; advanced reasoning in math and science

stages of development may differ from culture to culture based on necessity__

=__Ch.12 Meta cognition, Self-Regulated Learning, and Study Strategies__ (4/7) Cindy People's knowledge of their own learning and cognitive processes, as well as their regulation of those processes to enhance learning and memory, are collectively known as metacognition. Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills - Thinking about thinking

**The process of Metacognition is consistent with social cognitive theorists' notion of selfregulation: It provides the mechanism through which people begin to regulate ones aspect of their lives- their own learning. Self-Regulated Learning**
 * Being aware of ones own learning and memory capabilities are and of what learning tasks can realistically be accomplished.
 * Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not
 * Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful
 * Using effective learning strategies
 * Monitoring one's present knowledge
 * Knowing effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information


 * Social Cognitive theorists and cognitivists alike have begun to portray effective learning in a similar manner- as a process of setting goals, choosing learning strategies that are likely to help one achieve those goals, and then evaluating the results of one's efforts
 * Goal Setting - Identifying one or more desired end results for a learning activity
 * Planning - Determining how best to use the time available for a learning task.
 * Self-motivation - maintaining motivation to complete a learning task. Self-regulated learners are likely to have high self -efficacy regarding their ability to accomplish a learning task - putting work before pleasure.
 * Attention control- Focusing attention on the subject matter at hand- clear mind of possible distractions
 * Application of learning strategies - Self-regulated learners have a wide variety of learning strategies at their disposal, and they use different ones depending on the specific goal they want to accomplish.
 * Self- Monitoring - Checking periodically to see whether progress is being made toward the goal.
 * Appropriate help-seeking: Seeking assistance that might facilitate learning.
 * Self-Evaluation- Assessing the final outcome of one's efforts - Is it sufficient for the goals set for ones self.
 * Self Reflection - Determining the extent to which one's learning strategies have been successful and efficient, and possibly identifying alternatives that may be more effective in the future.

= =

= =

=__Ch.13 Transfer and Problem Solving (4/7) Cindy __=

= =

= =

=__Ch.14 Social Processes in Knowledge Construction (4/7) Cindy __=

= =

= =

=__Ch.15 Motivation and Affect (4/14) Cindy __=

= =

= =

=__Ch.16__ Cognitive Factors in Motivation (4/14) _Cindy=